Effective Programming for Language- Minority Students. Because of this tremendous increase in the numbers of Asian, Hispanic, and other linguistically and culturally different individuals, school districts can no longer ignore the need for adjusting instructional programs to better serve these groups. One result has been a great expansion of bilingual education to provide for the educational needs of students with limited proficiency in English. To better understand programming needs, some clarification of terms is necessary—clarification that can lead to far more effective instructional methods. What is the Distinction Between Bilingualism Versus Bilingual Education? Demographic variables show evidence that there will be an expansion of groups eligible for services through bilingual education. However, bilingual education often means different things to different people. In order to understand the basic concepts of bilingual instruction, certain terms need clarification. The terms bilingualism and bilingual education appear frequently in literature. However, there is a great deal of variation with regard to the meaning of these two terms (Hakuta 1. An individual who can speak two languages is usually considered bilingual. However, confusion ensues when the degree of proficiency enters into the discussion. Some authorities claim that a bilingual person must have native- like fluency in both languages (Bloomfield 1. Others maintain that minimal competency in two languages is sufficient to be called bilingual (Haugen 1. Diebold 1. 96. 1). Hornby (1. 97. 7) gives the following advice in hopes of resolving this issue: bilingualism is not all- or- none, rather it is an individual characteristic that may exist to varying degrees from minimum ability to complete fluency in more than one language. Bilingual education is another term requiring clarification because of its variation of meaning in different circles. The following is a commonly accepted definition of bilingual education: “Bilingual education” is the use of two languages as media of instruction for a child or a group of children in part or all of the school curriculum (Cohen 1. It is also acknowledged that it is impossible to totally separate language and culture. Consequently, the term bilingual education includes the concept of bicultural education (Ovando and Collier 1. The U. S. 9. 5- 5. Bilingual Act, defines the term program of bilingual education as follows: A program of instruction, designed for children of limited English proficiency in elementary or secondary schools, in which, with respect to the years of study to which the program is applicable . From this, one could surmise that the primary goal of bilingual education is not necessarily to teach English or a second language, but to teach children concepts, knowledge, and skills through the language they know best and reinforce this information through the second language. Anderson and Boyer (1. Bilingual learning necessitates rethinking the entire curriculum in terms of a child's best instruments for learning, of his readiness for learning various subjects, and his own identity and potential for growth and development. Although bilingual education experts feel that cognitive and affective development should be at the core of the bilingual program, not everyone recognizes these as the primary goals. It is not uncommon to have people feel that the linguistic goals should be primary: “The main purpose of the bilingual program is to teach English as soon as possible and integrate the children into the mainstream of education; ” or to place emphasis on cultural goals: “The main purpose of the program should be to maintain the native language and culture while the children learn English.” By placing emphasis on the linguistic and cultural side of bilingual education, confusion and controversy often arise. Although transition to the mainstream and maintenance of the native culture are both important, neither should be the central theme of the bilingual program. A bilingual program with a transitional linguistic and cultural goal is one that uses the native language and culture of the student only to the extent necessary for the child to acquire English and thus function in the regular school curriculum. This program does not stress the child's native language (L1) and thus, does not teach the student to read or write in the native language. English- language acquisition is also emphasized in a bilingual program with linguistic and cultural maintenance, but also promoted is the value of linguistic and cultural diversity. A programming language is a notation for writing programs, which are specifications of a computation or algorithm. Some, but not all, authors restrict the term 'programming language' to those languages that can. Free online programming and computer science books (Linux, Java, Microsoft tools, C/C++, Perl and Python). How to Program in C++. You may copy this file for noncommercial use. The latest version is located at cs.fit.edu/~mmahoney/cse2050/how2cpp.html updated Apr. Please report errors to Matt Mahoney at [email protected]. Debugging is a very important task in the software development process since having defects in a program can have significant consequences for its users. Some languages are more prone to some kinds of faults because their. Language Learning; Acculturatio. The new culture is almost inaccessible. Frustration is constant. The new language is very difficult to master. Transgenerational conflict. Children are encouraged to become literate in their native language and to develop bilingual skills throughout their schooling even into their adult lives. This transitional approach to bilingual education is supported by state and federal legislation; however, many districts go beyond the law and use local resources to implement maintenance programs for language- minority students. What Are the Underlying Principles of Second- Language Acquisition? Second- language acquisition (L2) is developmental, continuous, interactive with cognition, and rule- governed. It is acquired by the student through interaction with the environment. The affective variables include motivation, environment, attitude, and socioeconomic status. It would seem to parallel primary language (L1) acquisition with one major exception: the child is not usually a participant of the L2 target language group and as such is at a distinct disadvantage. The L2's ability and inclination to interact with the L2 group is vital for learning the language. Principles. The student is an active party in acquiring language. Languages are acquired, not taught; there is little adult “teaching” in learning a language. No matter what we do it is the learner who determines whether or not the language is gained. Students construct their own rules in language acquisition. Language proceeds from the general to the specific. There is individual variability: The process of language acquisition is similar for all individuals; however, the rate varies. Language is best learned in a non- anxious environment. A student has intuitive knowledge of language. Ability to use language often occurs before being able to verbalize it. There should be no attempt to sequence language learning. The student abstracts rules from data around him. The rooting of language is in the student's cognitive growth. Language occurs when the environment is responsive to the student. Environment should focus on meaning rather than on form. Language occurs when there is both linguistic and non- linguistic diversity. Language learning occurs when there is interaction with the environment. Language development is continuous. The environment should be compatible with the student's own way of learning. Language is language, not a collection of skills that can be separated and taught individually. It is acquired through active, meaning- oriented use. For a more elaborate discussion of these principles, see the ASCD Curriculum Handbook, Section 7: Foreign Languages. Second- Language Acquisition— A Process Parallel to Acculturation? In order to provide culturally and linguistically appropriate instruction, one must first formulate an operational definition of culture. Anthropologists and ethnographers define culture in relation to the abiding patterns of behavior, beliefs, and values of a designated group in society. Educators recognize that children in all cultures receive their first instruction within the close relationships of a family, be it nuclear or extended. Educators sense that culture is functional, that it is shared by a group and transmitted to new members. A child is born into a culture, interacts with its precepts, and, based on his experiences in life, helps shape that culture. With time, travel, and exposure, he also interacts with other cultures. This process of interaction is called acculturation. During the period of acculturation an individual gradually adapts to his new environment and slowly incorporates one or more characteristics of the new surroundings into his set of behaviors. The result, at first, may be a blend of a traditional pattern with the newer adapted traits. All immigrants everywhere acculturate to a varying extent and at a different rate. In many respects, second language acquisition parallels the process of acculturation. Table 1 outlines the list of the stages of acculturation and language learning that are complimentary: Table 1. Language Learning. Acculturatio. Language Learnin. Stage 1. The new culture is almost inaccessible. Frustration is constant. The new language is very difficult to master. Transgenerational conflict is evident when children learn faster than parents. Stage 2. The new culture is functionally understood. The new language is beginning to make communicative sense. Stage 3. Adaptation and blending is underway with subtle changes taking place. With literacy in one's own language, literacy develops in second language. Stage 4. Aspects of one's life are becoming bicultural. Native proficiency is almost achieved. Stage 5. The second culture feels “comfortable” although traditional values continue to be important. The second language is both equally dominant and proficient. What Are Some Generalizations About the Optimal Age for Second- Language Acquisition (L2)? Before puberty, it does not matter for overall long- term academic achievement when one is initially exposed to or first receives instruction in L2 as long as first- language cognitive development is continued through age 1. L1) is largely achieved). When children's first- language development is discontinued before it is completed, they may experience negative cognitive effects in the development of L2; conversely, children who have reached full cognitive development in two languages enjoy cognitive advantage over monolinguals.
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